The failure of mainstream growth coverage to ship on the promise of eradicating international poverty is more and more troublesome to disclaim (World Financial institution 2024). In consequence, theories of worldwide growth are opening to various and demanding approaches. On this context there was a renewal of curiosity in dependency concept as a wealthy heterodox custom of political economic system (Kvangraven 2021; Chilcote and Salém Vasconcelos 2022; Antunes de Oliveira and Kvangraven 2024). In a latest paper, I turned to one of many foundational students of dependency, Walter Rodney (1942-1980), to work by among the strengths and limits of dependency concept for modern research (Johnson 2023).
Finding Rodney
Rodney was an Afro-Guyanese historian, political economist, and scholar of Africa and the Caribbean. He was additionally a Marxist. Nonetheless, he handled the sources of historic materialism not as mounted and full, however as an evolving physique of concept and methodology to be developed by concrete empirical analysis. Rodney wrote a collection of main books and essays, each scholarly and standard, and he was a dedicated political activist. He died a lot too early in his profession, assassinated by the hands of his personal authorities within the streets of Georgetown in 1980.
Rodney’s significance is obvious in lots of fields. As a card-carrying historian with a PhD from SOAS, he’s recognized by historians as an authority on Africa and the Caribbean. His dissertation, printed in 1970 by Oxford, stays foundational in modern African historiography (Rodney 1970). In political economic system, Rodney is finest recognized for his monumental guide How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972), which was written for a mass viewers however can also be rightly considered a basic work of dependency concept and world-systems evaluation (Wallerstein 1986). Rodney can also be considered a key theorist within the area of Black Research, and, most lately, Rodney is handled as a central determine within the literature on racial capitalism (Jenkins and Leroy 2021).
Rodney’s work comprises many sources nonetheless to be recovered and browse for the issues of right now. My very own strategy to this was to get well his closing guide, A Historical past of the Guyanese Working Folks, 1881–1905 (1981), which is scarcely learn. The guide is uncared for for a number of causes. Most clearly, it’s a painstaking work of main analysis, written for specialists on Guyanese and Caribbean historical past. It doesn’t have the vary of his first guide on West Africa or the political aptitude of his most well-known guide on imperialism and dependency in Africa. Furthermore, the guide was printed posthumously. Rodney was assassinated across the similar time that the Third World venture itself was assassinated (Prashad 2007), giving strategy to the neoliberal flip and the debt crises of the Eighties. Theoretical fashions would monitor this flip, shifting away from historic materialism and towards the extra culturalist and ideational body of postcolonial and decolonial research.
For these causes, I discovered Rodney’s closing guide ripe for retrieval as a piece that reveals a critical and inventive software of a historic materialist framework to research capitalism and sophistication in a concrete colonial setting. I sought to reintegrate this work into Rodney’s wider corpus and into the context of debates about Marxism, dependency concept, and world-systems evaluation within the Nineteen Seventies.
Three Contributions
I organized my findings concerning Rodney’s work into three principal contributions. First, Rodney’s works contribute to the literature on the character and historical past of capitalism, and particularly the inherently worldwide structure of capitalist growth. Second, Rodney provided a theoretically attuned and empirically grounded account of the central position of unfree labor within the historical past of capitalism. Third, Rodney mobilized the identical framework to research the position of race and racism in capitalist class formation and capitalist growth.
Concerning the primary level, there are mainly two standard approaches throughout the Marxist custom to the query of the right way to conceptualize capitalism as an object of essential examine. The primary emphasizes home class construction and focuses particularly on the connection between wage labor and capital (Brenner 1977; Wooden 2001). The second emphasizes the worldwide division of labor and views the basic type of capitalist large-scale trade analyzed by Marx as however one key node inside a wider capitalist world system of manufacturing and trade (Frank 1969; Wallerstein 1974). Sadly, these contrasting views usually breakdown into one-sided polemics wherein these centering class and manufacturing body their work in opposition to those that middle worldwide flows of capital and labor.
However Rodney’s work doesn’t match neatly into this division. That is clear proper from the start, in his first collection of research of West Africa, wherein Rodney analysed the formation of the European slave commerce by centering the query of sophistication formation each in Europe and on the African continent. Rodney argued that it was exactly by exploiting current class hierarchies in Africa that the European merchants have been in a position to assemble the transatlantic system of slavery, which was so important to the early historical past of capitalism. Rodney’s account thus can’t be dismissed on the grounds that it posits worldwide commerce because the figuring out issue of capitalist growth to the exclusion of an evaluation of sophistication construction (see Brenner 1977: 88). Rodney’s technique takes as its goal the combination of buildings of manufacturing and buildings of trade.
The second contribution I spotlight flows from this theoretical framework and issues the query of unfree labor within the historical past of capitalism. Within the custom of Eric Williams earlier than him and of Immanuel Wallerstein after him, Rodney’s work grasps that capitalist manufacturing on a world scale entails a number of types of labor, together with varied gradations of free and compelled labor (as with Banaji 2011). This comes by particularly powerfully in his guide on working-class formation in sugar plantation economic system of British Guiana. There, Rodney does away with formalistic theories on either side of the theoretical divide. Capitalism is constituted neither by wage labor relations alone nor by an industrial core outlined by wage labor and a periphery outlined by bonded labor. As an alternative, Rodney’s evaluation of colonial capitalism in British Guiana captured complicated dynamics of labor management spanning wage labor, slavey, and indenture, along with the struggles of unbiased subsistence labor. This represents an necessary advance in theorizing core-periphery relations within the international political economic system.
Lastly, Rodney provided a novel contribution to the theorization of race and racism in a capitalist system. Rodney handled the troublesome questions of race and sophistication in varied methods and for various audiences all through his profession. However it could not appear inappropriate to offer particular weight to his most mature and developed work on colonial capitalism and sophistication formation. That work comprises a outstanding chapter referred to as “Race as a Contradiction Among the many Working Folks.” Whereas acknowledging that employees of African and Indian origins had inherited distinct and competing pursuits from an extended historical past of battle, the chapter challenges the dominant scholarly view that the entire of Guyanese historical past had been marked by persistent racial battle amongst employees. Rodney rejected this totally on empirical grounds: scouring the archives, the proof to help such a declare simply wasn’t there. Rodney thus provided an alternate and extra constructive interpretation: the Guyanese working class suffered not from the presence of inherent racial battle, however from the absence of a mature working-class political tradition.
Rodney devoted the final a part of his life to the battle to assemble such a tradition. Characteristically, Rodney identified that it was the elite courses (together with skilled teachers) who benefited excess of working individuals from the concept that racial teams possessed inherently conflicting pursuits. Tragically, it was exactly this kind of considering that put a goal on his again.
Constructing on Rodney
What does all this imply for modern approaches to political economic system and growth? First, it signifies that we have to let go of inflexible frameworks that break up our understanding of capitalism into home and worldwide compartments. It isn’t solely attainable, however crucial, to floor our research of sophistication formation and worldwide growth of their mutual and overlapping dimensions. Second, we’d like a greater understanding of how capitalism has employed, and continues to make use of, variegated types of labor management (LeBaron and Phillips 2019). Third, and on the sensible aspect, returning to Rodney may help make clear sure deadlocks in modern political discourse, particularly regarding race and sophistication.
Take into account the limitless debate on whether or not class is the first concern of politics to the exclusion of racial identities, or whether or not consideration to race and empire means ‘decentering’ class. Rodney teaches us that each of those positions are equally disastrous – and actually two sides of the identical coin. To ‘decenter’ class would definitely be a non-starter from Rodney’s perspective. However to summary class from the social identities that cohere inside courses could be no much less absurd and self-defeating.
Rodney’s strategy to the political economic system of growth embodies the crucial of sophistication evaluation, which leads us essentially to grappling with complicated social identities in a global body. Returning to Rodney can assist us in urgent ahead on all these questions within the evaluation of concrete conjunctures, whether or not historic or modern.
References
Antunes de Oliveira, F. and Kvangraven, I.H. (2023) ‘Again to Dakar: Decolonizing worldwide political economic system by dependency concept’, Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system, 30(5), pp. 1676–1700. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2023.2169322.
Banaji, J. (2011) Principle as Historical past: Essays on Modes of Manufacturing and Exploitation. Chicago: Haymarket Books.
Brenner, R. (1977) ‘The Origins of Capitalist Improvement: a Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism’, New Left Overview, pp. 25–92.
Chilcote, R.H. and Salém Vasconcelos, J. (2022) ‘Introduction: Whither Improvement Principle?’, Latin American Views, 49(1), pp. 4–17. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X211070020.
Frank, A.G. (1969) Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America: historic research of Chile and Brazil. New York: Fashionable Reader Paperbacks.
Jenkins, D. and Leroy, J. (eds) (2021) Histories of Racial Capitalism. New York: Columbia College Press.
Johnson, D.Ok. (2023) ‘Walter Rodney and the strategy of political economic system: retrieving a critical-historical IPE’, Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system, 30(2), pp. 421–436. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2022.2153263.
Kvangraven, I.H. (2021) ‘Past the Stereotype: Restating the Relevance of the Dependency Analysis Programme’, Improvement and Change, 52(1), pp. 76–112. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12593.
LeBaron, G. and Phillips, N. (2019) ‘States and the Political Financial system of Unfree Labour’, New Political Financial system, 24(1), pp. 1–21. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2017.1420642.
Prashad, V. (2008) The Darker Nations: A Folks’s Historical past of the Third World. New York: The New Press.
Rodney, W. (1970) A Historical past of the Higher Guinea Coast, 1545-1800. New York: Oxford College Press.
Rodney, W. (1981) A Historical past of the Guyanese Working Folks, 1881-1905. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins College Press.
Rodney, W. (2018) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Verso Books.
Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Fashionable World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Financial system within the Sixteenth Century. New York: Educational Press.
Wallerstein, I. (1986) ‘Walter Rodney: The Historian as Spokesman for Historic Forces’, American Ethnologist, 13(2), pp. 330–337.
Wooden, E.M. (2002) The origin of capitalism: an extended view. London: Verso.
World Financial institution (2024) Worldwide Debt Report. Washington, D.C.: World Financial institution. Obtainable at: http://hdl.deal with.web/10986/42444.
David Kenneth Johnson is a Fellow within the Division of Worldwide Relations on the London College of Economics. His analysis examines the entwined histories of capitalism and empire, the political economic system of US overseas coverage, and worldwide financial hierarchy. His work has been printed in Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system and Oxford Analysis Encyclopaedia of Worldwide Research.
Picture by Nicholas Laughlin.
The failure of mainstream growth coverage to ship on the promise of eradicating international poverty is more and more troublesome to disclaim (World Financial institution 2024). In consequence, theories of worldwide growth are opening to various and demanding approaches. On this context there was a renewal of curiosity in dependency concept as a wealthy heterodox custom of political economic system (Kvangraven 2021; Chilcote and Salém Vasconcelos 2022; Antunes de Oliveira and Kvangraven 2024). In a latest paper, I turned to one of many foundational students of dependency, Walter Rodney (1942-1980), to work by among the strengths and limits of dependency concept for modern research (Johnson 2023).
Finding Rodney
Rodney was an Afro-Guyanese historian, political economist, and scholar of Africa and the Caribbean. He was additionally a Marxist. Nonetheless, he handled the sources of historic materialism not as mounted and full, however as an evolving physique of concept and methodology to be developed by concrete empirical analysis. Rodney wrote a collection of main books and essays, each scholarly and standard, and he was a dedicated political activist. He died a lot too early in his profession, assassinated by the hands of his personal authorities within the streets of Georgetown in 1980.
Rodney’s significance is obvious in lots of fields. As a card-carrying historian with a PhD from SOAS, he’s recognized by historians as an authority on Africa and the Caribbean. His dissertation, printed in 1970 by Oxford, stays foundational in modern African historiography (Rodney 1970). In political economic system, Rodney is finest recognized for his monumental guide How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972), which was written for a mass viewers however can also be rightly considered a basic work of dependency concept and world-systems evaluation (Wallerstein 1986). Rodney can also be considered a key theorist within the area of Black Research, and, most lately, Rodney is handled as a central determine within the literature on racial capitalism (Jenkins and Leroy 2021).
Rodney’s work comprises many sources nonetheless to be recovered and browse for the issues of right now. My very own strategy to this was to get well his closing guide, A Historical past of the Guyanese Working Folks, 1881–1905 (1981), which is scarcely learn. The guide is uncared for for a number of causes. Most clearly, it’s a painstaking work of main analysis, written for specialists on Guyanese and Caribbean historical past. It doesn’t have the vary of his first guide on West Africa or the political aptitude of his most well-known guide on imperialism and dependency in Africa. Furthermore, the guide was printed posthumously. Rodney was assassinated across the similar time that the Third World venture itself was assassinated (Prashad 2007), giving strategy to the neoliberal flip and the debt crises of the Eighties. Theoretical fashions would monitor this flip, shifting away from historic materialism and towards the extra culturalist and ideational body of postcolonial and decolonial research.
For these causes, I discovered Rodney’s closing guide ripe for retrieval as a piece that reveals a critical and inventive software of a historic materialist framework to research capitalism and sophistication in a concrete colonial setting. I sought to reintegrate this work into Rodney’s wider corpus and into the context of debates about Marxism, dependency concept, and world-systems evaluation within the Nineteen Seventies.
Three Contributions
I organized my findings concerning Rodney’s work into three principal contributions. First, Rodney’s works contribute to the literature on the character and historical past of capitalism, and particularly the inherently worldwide structure of capitalist growth. Second, Rodney provided a theoretically attuned and empirically grounded account of the central position of unfree labor within the historical past of capitalism. Third, Rodney mobilized the identical framework to research the position of race and racism in capitalist class formation and capitalist growth.
Concerning the primary level, there are mainly two standard approaches throughout the Marxist custom to the query of the right way to conceptualize capitalism as an object of essential examine. The primary emphasizes home class construction and focuses particularly on the connection between wage labor and capital (Brenner 1977; Wooden 2001). The second emphasizes the worldwide division of labor and views the basic type of capitalist large-scale trade analyzed by Marx as however one key node inside a wider capitalist world system of manufacturing and trade (Frank 1969; Wallerstein 1974). Sadly, these contrasting views usually breakdown into one-sided polemics wherein these centering class and manufacturing body their work in opposition to those that middle worldwide flows of capital and labor.
However Rodney’s work doesn’t match neatly into this division. That is clear proper from the start, in his first collection of research of West Africa, wherein Rodney analysed the formation of the European slave commerce by centering the query of sophistication formation each in Europe and on the African continent. Rodney argued that it was exactly by exploiting current class hierarchies in Africa that the European merchants have been in a position to assemble the transatlantic system of slavery, which was so important to the early historical past of capitalism. Rodney’s account thus can’t be dismissed on the grounds that it posits worldwide commerce because the figuring out issue of capitalist growth to the exclusion of an evaluation of sophistication construction (see Brenner 1977: 88). Rodney’s technique takes as its goal the combination of buildings of manufacturing and buildings of trade.
The second contribution I spotlight flows from this theoretical framework and issues the query of unfree labor within the historical past of capitalism. Within the custom of Eric Williams earlier than him and of Immanuel Wallerstein after him, Rodney’s work grasps that capitalist manufacturing on a world scale entails a number of types of labor, together with varied gradations of free and compelled labor (as with Banaji 2011). This comes by particularly powerfully in his guide on working-class formation in sugar plantation economic system of British Guiana. There, Rodney does away with formalistic theories on either side of the theoretical divide. Capitalism is constituted neither by wage labor relations alone nor by an industrial core outlined by wage labor and a periphery outlined by bonded labor. As an alternative, Rodney’s evaluation of colonial capitalism in British Guiana captured complicated dynamics of labor management spanning wage labor, slavey, and indenture, along with the struggles of unbiased subsistence labor. This represents an necessary advance in theorizing core-periphery relations within the international political economic system.
Lastly, Rodney provided a novel contribution to the theorization of race and racism in a capitalist system. Rodney handled the troublesome questions of race and sophistication in varied methods and for various audiences all through his profession. However it could not appear inappropriate to offer particular weight to his most mature and developed work on colonial capitalism and sophistication formation. That work comprises a outstanding chapter referred to as “Race as a Contradiction Among the many Working Folks.” Whereas acknowledging that employees of African and Indian origins had inherited distinct and competing pursuits from an extended historical past of battle, the chapter challenges the dominant scholarly view that the entire of Guyanese historical past had been marked by persistent racial battle amongst employees. Rodney rejected this totally on empirical grounds: scouring the archives, the proof to help such a declare simply wasn’t there. Rodney thus provided an alternate and extra constructive interpretation: the Guyanese working class suffered not from the presence of inherent racial battle, however from the absence of a mature working-class political tradition.
Rodney devoted the final a part of his life to the battle to assemble such a tradition. Characteristically, Rodney identified that it was the elite courses (together with skilled teachers) who benefited excess of working individuals from the concept that racial teams possessed inherently conflicting pursuits. Tragically, it was exactly this kind of considering that put a goal on his again.
Constructing on Rodney
What does all this imply for modern approaches to political economic system and growth? First, it signifies that we have to let go of inflexible frameworks that break up our understanding of capitalism into home and worldwide compartments. It isn’t solely attainable, however crucial, to floor our research of sophistication formation and worldwide growth of their mutual and overlapping dimensions. Second, we’d like a greater understanding of how capitalism has employed, and continues to make use of, variegated types of labor management (LeBaron and Phillips 2019). Third, and on the sensible aspect, returning to Rodney may help make clear sure deadlocks in modern political discourse, particularly regarding race and sophistication.
Take into account the limitless debate on whether or not class is the first concern of politics to the exclusion of racial identities, or whether or not consideration to race and empire means ‘decentering’ class. Rodney teaches us that each of those positions are equally disastrous – and actually two sides of the identical coin. To ‘decenter’ class would definitely be a non-starter from Rodney’s perspective. However to summary class from the social identities that cohere inside courses could be no much less absurd and self-defeating.
Rodney’s strategy to the political economic system of growth embodies the crucial of sophistication evaluation, which leads us essentially to grappling with complicated social identities in a global body. Returning to Rodney can assist us in urgent ahead on all these questions within the evaluation of concrete conjunctures, whether or not historic or modern.
References
Antunes de Oliveira, F. and Kvangraven, I.H. (2023) ‘Again to Dakar: Decolonizing worldwide political economic system by dependency concept’, Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system, 30(5), pp. 1676–1700. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2023.2169322.
Banaji, J. (2011) Principle as Historical past: Essays on Modes of Manufacturing and Exploitation. Chicago: Haymarket Books.
Brenner, R. (1977) ‘The Origins of Capitalist Improvement: a Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism’, New Left Overview, pp. 25–92.
Chilcote, R.H. and Salém Vasconcelos, J. (2022) ‘Introduction: Whither Improvement Principle?’, Latin American Views, 49(1), pp. 4–17. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X211070020.
Frank, A.G. (1969) Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America: historic research of Chile and Brazil. New York: Fashionable Reader Paperbacks.
Jenkins, D. and Leroy, J. (eds) (2021) Histories of Racial Capitalism. New York: Columbia College Press.
Johnson, D.Ok. (2023) ‘Walter Rodney and the strategy of political economic system: retrieving a critical-historical IPE’, Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system, 30(2), pp. 421–436. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2022.2153263.
Kvangraven, I.H. (2021) ‘Past the Stereotype: Restating the Relevance of the Dependency Analysis Programme’, Improvement and Change, 52(1), pp. 76–112. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12593.
LeBaron, G. and Phillips, N. (2019) ‘States and the Political Financial system of Unfree Labour’, New Political Financial system, 24(1), pp. 1–21. Obtainable at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2017.1420642.
Prashad, V. (2008) The Darker Nations: A Folks’s Historical past of the Third World. New York: The New Press.
Rodney, W. (1970) A Historical past of the Higher Guinea Coast, 1545-1800. New York: Oxford College Press.
Rodney, W. (1981) A Historical past of the Guyanese Working Folks, 1881-1905. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins College Press.
Rodney, W. (2018) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Verso Books.
Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Fashionable World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Financial system within the Sixteenth Century. New York: Educational Press.
Wallerstein, I. (1986) ‘Walter Rodney: The Historian as Spokesman for Historic Forces’, American Ethnologist, 13(2), pp. 330–337.
Wooden, E.M. (2002) The origin of capitalism: an extended view. London: Verso.
World Financial institution (2024) Worldwide Debt Report. Washington, D.C.: World Financial institution. Obtainable at: http://hdl.deal with.web/10986/42444.
David Kenneth Johnson is a Fellow within the Division of Worldwide Relations on the London College of Economics. His analysis examines the entwined histories of capitalism and empire, the political economic system of US overseas coverage, and worldwide financial hierarchy. His work has been printed in Overview of Worldwide Political Financial system and Oxford Analysis Encyclopaedia of Worldwide Research.
Picture by Nicholas Laughlin.
